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HAND BOOK 

on 

Warp Sizing 



PRICE 
ONE DOLLAR 



Copyrighted 1919 by C. J. Tagliabue Mfg. Co. 



TAG 



UABUE 



MFG.CO. 

TEMPERATURE ENGINEERS 
1888 Thirty-Third St. Brookfyn.N.Y. 



CHICAGO BOSTON PITTSBURGH 

TULSA, OKLA. PORTLAND, ORE. 

SAN FRANCISCO 



^i^^i^^^^»^^^o^i^^i^^i^^i^^i^^\ 



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To the Reader: — 

rjlHlS Hand Book is not 
intended as a compend- 
ium on ivarp sizing but is 
designed to place in the 
hands of the practical man, 
some exact facts covering 
several important points. 
It is hoped that it will help 
to make better weaving 
warps. 



MV-I 1919 

©CI.A536380 



2 



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Slashing of Cotton Warps 

Z??/ Pro/. Everett H. Hinckley 

New Bedford Textile School 

IMPORTANCE OF SLASHING 

In the manufacture of cotton cloth, there is no process of 
which the actual cost bears so remote a relation to its value 
as in the slashing of warps. The organization of the mill 
may be such that the cotton passes through the usual stages 
of preparation as picking, carding, combing and spinning 
without undue waste, producing a uniform product. Yet, as a 
result of poor slashing, the weaving department will be oper- 
ated only with great difficulty. 

As a result of these conditions, production drops, seconds 
increase and the operatives grow dissatisfied. Although the 
overseer of weaving and his assistants do their best, they 
cannot overcome these adverse conditions. Adjustment of 
tension, temperature and moisture will help to remedy the 
situation, but by no means cure it. 

Important as slashing is, it is frequently regarded by the 
management as of minor importance and does not receive the 
attention it should. There are several reasons for this situa- 
tion. The process involves the use of hot sticky liquids, 
hence is not always neat. This produces conditions which do 
not appeal to the imagination of one with a mechanical or 
systematic turn of mind. Casual observation by the superin- 
tendent cannot disclose whether the size mixture is right. 
The word of the slasher-tender must be accepted with almost 
no chance to verify his word. 

The process of slashing, compared with that of spinning 
or weaving, is very rapid. The amount of damage caused by 
any errors in judgment of the operator, thus extends through 
considerable of his product before correction can be made. 
In fact, these faults sometimes are not found until the goods 
are dyed and finished. As the warps are not all put in the 
looms at once, the extent of the damage is often not realized 
for several weeks. By this time it is too late to correct it. 
Thus, the results obtained in slashing, contain elements 
largely due to the personality of the overseer and his slasher- 
tenders. The payment of dividends is directly affected by a 
small group of men controlling a single operation 

PROCESS OF SLASHING 

Control of the several factors in slashing would prevent 
this undesirable condition. These factors are: 

(a) The nature of starch used; 

(b) The nature of sizing compound used; 

(c) The cooking of the "size" mixture; 

(d) The method of applying the "size"; 

(e) Condition of drying; 

(f) Mechanical condition of slasher. 



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To obtain the best results in slashing, we must use the most 
suitable starch and "sizing" compound, see that the time and 
temperature of cooking are right, have proper pressure on 
the squeeze rolls and the size in the sow box at the right 
heat, have the drying cylinders properly heated, and be sure 
that the adjustment of the driving gears is right. 

The determination of what is best in each case usually 
rests with the overseer of slashing and his slasher-tenders. 
These men often obtain results that reflect good judgment and 
keen observation. For a particular mill, each one of the 
above factors may be made standard if full advantage is 
taken of modern devices. It is our purpose to direct how 
this may be done. 

MATERIALS USED 

Of the starches available, good practice dictates that corn 
is suitable for coarse yarns and potato for fine yarns. In 
place of potato, tapioca starch may be used. Thin boiling 
corn starches are also used for the same purpose. Commer- 
cial starches are offered on the market in a high state of 
purity. The amount of moisture they contain is very im- 
portant and varies greatly with weather conditions. It 
will vary so much that mixtures made carefully by weight do 
not give uniform results. On one day 100 lbs. of starch may 
contain 12 lbs. of water, and starch taken from the same 
barrel the next day may carry 20 lbs. of water in each 100 lbs. 
taken. A simple and practical way of meeting this difficulty 
is to measure the starch by volume instead of by weight, thus 
the measuring of the starch is not difficult. 

The "sizing" compounds on the market offer a wide field 
for selection. While there are a great number of these com- 
pounds, their ingredients can be classed under four heads: 

(a) Fats, as tallow or cotton seed oil; 

(b) Soaps, made from animal or vegetable fats; 

(c) Chemicals, as magnesium chloride, acetic acid or 

caustic soda; 

(d) Gums, as dextrine, tragasol, or algin. 

The fats and oils assist in penetration, soften and lubricate 
the yarn. The soaps also lubricate somewhat. They also 
give stiffness to the yarn. The chemicals act upon the starch 
in various ways. Acids cause the starch paste to cook thin; 
caustic soda changes it to a thick gummy material, and salts 
like magnesium chloride attract moisture to the yarn, thus 
making it more pliable. The gums usually give a smooth 
uniform tough coating to the yarn, which resists better the 
chafing action of the harness and reed. The "sizing" com- 
pound as sold, frequently contains two or more of the above 
materials. Water and starch may also properly be present 
to make the "sizing" compounds easier to handle in the 
slasher room. 

METHOD OF COOKING 

The proper cooking of the size mixture in the kettle al- 
ways presents problems difficult to handle. Starch is insoluble 
in cold water and is unacted upon by it. Fig. 1 shows corn 



4 



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Fig. 1. Corn Starch in Cold Water 



starch in cold water as it appears under the microscope. As 
the water grows warmer, the starch granules swell. Fig. 2 is 
a micro-photograph of corn starch after it has been heated 
at 130° F. for 30 minutes. By comparing the size of these 
granules with those of Fig. 1, a good idea of this swelling 
action will be obtained. Further heating in water at higher 
temperatures, causes the starch granules to burst and form a 
semi-transparent paste. The starch in Fig. 3 has been heated 
at 160° F. for thirty minutes. Nearly all of the granules are 
broken up. A few that have been mechanically enclosed in 
paste, still exist in lumps. By heating the starch at a boil 




Fig. 2. Corn Starch Heated to 130°F. for 30 min. 



5 



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Fig. 3. Corn Starch Heated to 160°F. for 30 min. 



all the lumps are broken up and a uniform paste results. Fig. 
4 shows a starch in this condition. The vine-like effect is 
characteristic of a well pasted starch. Continued action of 
hot water on the starch slowly changes it to sugars that are 
soluble in water. If acids or salts are present, the action is 
hastened. These sugars have little value as protecting or 
stiffening agents for the yarn. If boiled with an open steam 
pipe, the mixture is diluted with condensed steam. Hence 
the cooking of the size is an operation that calls for good 
judgment and careful control. 




Fig. 4. Corn Starch Boiled 



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ADJUSTMENT OF MACHINE 

Sufficient pressure should be exerted by the squeeze rolls 
to flatten the yarn out, squeeze out the air and bruise the 
waxy coating so that when released from pressure, the yarn 
will suck up the sizing mixture. The sizing mixture in the 
sow box should be kept hot enough to prevent it skimming 
over, but not so hot as to cause excessive thinning by chem- 
ical changes or dilution with condensed steam. If the tem- 
perature of the size is not uniform, the drying of the yarn 
will not be uniform. This will also give hard and soft warps. 

The temperature of the drying cylinders is usually kept 
constant by pressure regulators. Little difficulty arises at 
this point. As the cylinders are usually housed, there are 
large losses of heat due to radiation. Hence much more 
steam is used than required. 

The drives, gears and other mechanical connections on the 
slasher should have frequent attention by a good mechanic. 
This will prevent undue breakage at the lease rods, prevent 
over straining of the yarn, and cause the proper "building" 
of the warp. 

No device will ever do away with the need of careful men 
to operate the slasher. However, the operator may be as- 
sisted to a great extent by the purchase of proper mechanical 
devices to govern the valuable points to which attention has 
been called. Of these devices, there is probably none that 
present opportunities for greater improvements of the slash- 
ing process than those that control the temperatures of cook- 
ing and applying the size. 



INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE (Coarse Yarn) 

The following article is a report of results obtained in a 
practical test made at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Com- 
pany, December 3, 1918. Slashers at this mill were equipped 
with Tagliabue Air-operated Temperature Controllers, so that 
is was possible to carry on the work under uniform tempera- 
ture conditions. Uniform level of "size" in the slasher box 
was maintained by the use of the Nivling system, whereby the 
overflow of the slasher box was adjusted to a definite depth 
and the "size" being constantly circulated by a pump from 
the main reservoir to each slasher. The "size" was mixed 
and cooked in separate kettles, one or more of which were 
continually delivered to the above reservoir so that the re- 
sults obtained on the various slashers represented the same 
"sizing" mixture. The machines themselves were practically 
new and in excellent mechanical condition. Thus, it is be- 
lieved that in this test superior accuracy was obtained. 



WEAVING TEST 

The weaving test was carried out on adjacent looms in the 
same set, all the warps being tied in and started up at the 
same time. A spare hand acted as observer. The atmos- 
pheric condition was fairly uniform, and, of course, as the 
warps were woven simultaneously was the same for each 



7 




The upper picture shows one-half of the slasher-room, illus- 
trating five of the slashers at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton 
Company Mills. The lower picture illustrates the size box at 
the far end of the above picture, slightly enlarged, also the 
"TAG" Automatic Temperature Controller and Recorder. 




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warp. An accurate record was kept by the spare hand of the 
yarn breakage over a period of 7% working days, and finally 
the fabric was subjected to the usual inspection in the cloth 
room. Besides the usual qualities such as pick and sley, 
weight per yard, the tensile strength of the woven cloth was 
also obtained. 

By reference to the micro-photographs shown on pages 4 
and 5, it will be readily seen that there are certain tempera- 
ture limits within which a starch paste must be kept in order 
to keep it uniform in consistency. It is further evident that 
there must be some point within these limits at which the 
yarn slashed will weave best. As the final criterion of the 
value of the slashing process must be how the warps weave, 
especial stress is laid in this article on the results obtained 
in that test. 



TEMPERATURE OF SIZE 

From the practical point of view of the slasher-tenders, 
the "size" in the slasher box should be kept hot enough so 
that it will not "skin over," and thin enough so as not to 
cause creeping of the covering on the slasher rolls or "pick- 
ing up" on the drying cylinders. On the other hand, if the 
"size" is kept too hot, it will be thinned by the condensation 
of excess of steam, and also by production of invert sugar. 
Among practical slashers, there is a wide variety of opinion 
as to the proper temperature at which the "size" should be 
kept. Some state that actual and constant boiling should 
take place; others that it should be "very hot"; others "good 
and hot"; all of which terms to the practical man of long 
experience mean something fairly definite, but to others of 
less experience, something quite vague. There are many rea- 
sons why there should be this variety of opinion. Chief 
among these are the facts that the warps vary so much in 
density, in twist of yarn, and in kind of cotton used. Also, 
and more difficult to control, is the variation in factor of 
judgment. 



DETAILS OF TEST 

Description of Warps: 

Yarn No. 22's 

Ends 6168 

Cuts per Beam 13 (approximate length of cuts 40 yds.) 
Warps drawn in 68 ends per inch, plain weave 2 ends per 
dent. 

Description of Slashing Test: 

The warps were run at the following temperatures: 
Warps (1) Controlled at 171°F. 

(2) Controlled at 197°F. 

(3) Controlled at 207°F. 

The Tagliabue Automatic Controller kept the temperature 
within such limits that the greatest variation per warp was 
3°. The temperatures here given are the average for the 
period covered by the warp. 



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Fig. 1. Warp Breakage due to Knots in Yarn. 

EVALUATION OF RESULTS 

The cloth was woven on four adjacent 90" looms, running 
at the rate of 104 picks per minute. The breakage of yarn 
in the weaving test was noted and classified in the follow- 
ing manner: 

(a) Knots 

(b) Coarse threads 

(c) Bunches 

(d) Unknown 

The test was run for 73% hours (7% days). Of these 
faults, there will be some variation from warp to warp, but it 
is believed this is reduced to minimum in this test by the large 
quantity of yarn of this number being made at this mill. The 
known faults are due to spinning and spooling. The size acts 
as a means to prevent yarn breakage due to these faults. The 



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Faults. 




Knots. Bunches, CoarseThreads. 



Classes of Faults in Warp Yarn. 

spoolers' knots being made by machine were very uniform 
in shape and strength. By the nature of the spooling proc- 
ess, particularly the length of yarns used, these knots are 
likely to be more nearly equally distributed than any other 
causes. The coarse threads and bunches, being due to faults 
such as piecing and uneven conditions in spinning and previ- 
ous process, are intermittent and by no means regularly 
distributed. Certain ends broke for which no cause could be 
given and therefore had to be classed as unknown. Ends 
broken by catching behind lease rods, catching in the har- 
ness or reed, or due to other weaving conditions would be 
majority of these. 

OBJECT OF SIZING 
The object of "sizing" of warps is to furnish to each end 
sufficient strength and resistance to chafing to stand the oper- 
ation of weaving. In arriving at the value of any conditions 
of s ashing, due attention must be given to the fact that some 
of these faults already in the yarn may be incurable. Coarse 
threads may be so weak that no amount of starch paste will 
stick them together strong enough to weave. Bunches may 
be small and weave in without breaking or they may be very 



11 



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Days , 



Fig. 2. Warp Breakage due to Bunches, Coarse Threads and 
Unknown Causes. 



large, causing serious breakage. Conditions in slashing that 
improve the weaving value of coarse threads, would decrease 
that of the bunches. Coarse threads would weave best if 
slashed at high temperature where the strongest yarn is ob- 
tained. Bunches would weave best if softer, a condition 
obtained when the "size" is at a lower temperature. Knots 
would weave best under similar conditions to bunches. In 
order to arrive at the proper meaning of the results obtained, 
these facts must be borne in mind. 

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 

The results of the record obtained by the observer in the 
weaving test were analyzed and charts, Figs. 1 and 2, made, 
showing the breakage due to each of the four causes. From 
these charts it will be seen that the breakage of warp ends 
due to knots is lower, the lower the temperature of applica- 



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Wot/As. 
Fig. 3. Temperatures Recorded with Hand Control. 



tion of the "size." Further, it is approximately proportional 
to the temperature. The breakage due to bunches, as would 
be expected, is very erratic, but the higher temperatures 
show the most breakage. In the case of the coarse threads, 
the regularity is more striking, the lowest temperature giving 
the highest breakage. Unknown causes again give us an 
irregular chart, but the chart shows in a general way that 
the breakage is directly proportional to the temperature. As 
all these faults are met with in everyday work, the conclu- 
sions to be of value must be based upon the totals. 







TABLE 


1. 










Loom Breakage. 






No. of Warp 


Knots 


Bunches 


Coarse 
Threads 


Unknown 


Total 


1 
2 
3 


51 
84 
89 


38 
46 
42 


12 
14 
12 


23 
22 
30 


124 
166 
173 



Total 



224 



126 



38 



75 



463 



These also show a decided advantage for the lower tem- 
perature control, and also retain the breakage proportional 
to the temperature. 

CHECK TESTS 

For purposes of comparison, warps were also run on an- 
other slasher, using the same kind of yarn and in every way 
keeping the conditions as near the same as those used for 
warps 1, 2 and 3, except that the steam was controlled by 
hand. By referring to Chart 3, it will be seen that the part 
of this warp woven was sized at an average temperature of 
194° F. The results obtained in weaving, confirm in a general 
way, the conclusions obtained from the controlled temperature 
work. As this warp was made from another set of warper 
beams, too close a comparison cannot be made. It is ex- 
pected that the number of knots, bunches and coarse threads 



13 



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* Fig. 4. Breakage due to Knots in Warp No. 4 and Regulars. 

(Regular refers to Automatic Control) 

will vary according to conditions existing in the course of 
preparation of these beams. Such was the case. The tempera- 
ture was recorded by a self-recording thermometer, the face 
of which could not be seen by the operator, he relying solely 
on his own judgment. Fig. 3 shows the temperature re- 
corded. 



* (Author's note). Referring to charts, figures 4 and 5, the reason 
hand control shows a trifle better than the results obtained by automatic 
control is probably due to the fact that "hand control" covered a single 
warp, which had been better prepared and was more free from knots and 
bunches. The warps slashed under "regular or automatic control" were 
the run of the mill. This assumption is strengthened by the fact that 
breakage from unknown causes were larger on the "hand control." 

Of course, if complete reliance was placed on the experimental basis 
of this test only, there would be an advantage for "hand control" at the 
temperature noted. However, these tests will undoubtedly appeal more 
strongly to the practical man in their present form because he is aware 
of the variations which exists in knots and bunches and knows that these 
facts must be considered in deciding upon the value of test like these. 



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Days. 



*Fig. 5. Breakage due to Bunches, Coarse Threads and 
Unknown Causes in Warp No. 4 and Regulars. 

(Regular refers to Automatic Control) 

The results obtained, Table 2, indicate a better condition of 
yarn before slashing, i. e., fewer knots and other defects. The 
breakage is lower than any of the other warps except those 
for unknown causes. The breaks occurring due to the latter, 
are almost exactly the average of the four warps considered. 
This further confirms the idea of a better prepared warp 
before slashing. These results thus confirm the previous 
deductions. 

TABLE 2. 
Loom Breakage. (Average Temp. 199° F.). 
Coarse 
No. of Warp Knots Bunches Threads Unknown Total 
4 53 29 5 25 112 

As a further check on these tests, note was taken of the 
breakage of three other warps running in the same set of 
looms. These warps were slashed several weeks earlier at a 



15 



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controlled temperature of 195°F. The average results ob- 
tained in these cases, Table 3 and Figs. 4 and 5, are in fur- 
ther confirmation that the breakage is proportional to the 
temperature. 

TABLE 3. 
Loom Breakage. (Temperature 195°F.). 

Coarse 
No. of Warp Knots Bunches Threads Unknown Total 

Automatic Control 64 33 10 20 127 

CONCLUSIONS. 

From the foregoing tests, the conclusion is drawn that the 
temperature of application of sizing has a marked effect on 
the results obtained in weaving. That for warps, of the type 
represented by these tests, the lower temperature of appli- 
cation, providing the "size" does not "skin" over, or the rollers 
slip, the better weaving results. This advantage amounts 
to approximately one end for each two degrees drop from 
210° F. for the warps woven. 

In applying the above results in practice, care must be 
taken not to reduce the temperature of "size" to a point where 
it will not be properly dried, or where the thinner yarn will 
not be sufficiently stiffened to stand the weaving. There is 
also saving in steam but no attempt has been made to ascer- 
tain this, nor of the indirect results obtained by relieving the 
slasher-tender, the boss, and the superintendent of looking 
after the detail of steam in the size box. 

INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE (Medium Yarn). 

Although the results obtained at the Naumkeag Steam Cot- 
ton Mill indicated with considerable directness, that tempera- 
tures much below that of boiling water are desirable in the 
size box, it is thought best to test the accuracy of this con- 
clusion by carrying out another series of tests on different 
yarns at a different mill, and under entirely different operat- 
ing conditions. 

For this purpose, the New Bedford Cotton Mills Corpora- 
tion offered the use of their plant. In general, the plan of 
work was the same as at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Com- 
pany. Several warps were slashed under varied, but con- 
trolled temperature conditions, and the degree of success 
attained, judged by the results obtained in weaving. Finer 
yarns and a much denser warp were used and the looms were 
run faster. The slashing was done on Saco-Lowell slashers. 
All the warps were run on one machine. None of the usual 
condition of operation at this mill were altered but that of 
temperature . 

DETAILS OF SLASHING 

Average speed of machine 25.7 yards per minute; 12 
slasher beams of 35s single yarn, 482 ends each, were made 
up into 10 loom beams; average number cuts per loom beam, 

9.7. 

The sizing mixture was carefully made to insure uniform 
quantities of material from vegetable starch, a gum and a 



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Chart 5. 



Ends Broken due to Knots. Warps Slashed at the 
New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. 



softener. Each mixing was properly boiled, then run into a 
supply tank from which all the slashers drew their supply. 
The slasher has two inlet valves for size, one at each end of 
the size box. These valves were linked together by a steel 
rod so that both valves opened at the same time. The top 
squeeze rolls were carefully lapped with a high grade of 
slasher cloth. The steam pressure in the drying cylinder was 
kept nearly constant, averaging 12.8 lbs. Each warp was 
completely dried. 

DETAILS OF WEAVING TEST 

50" Crompton & Knowles loom — 3 x 3 ; 156 sley — 6 harness 
plain; 4 ends in a dent; 26 picks of No. 10 filling yarn; 36 
inches wide in the cloth; looms run 150 picks per minute. 

A special reciprocating-rod was used to open the yarn back 
of the regular lease rods. Owing to the density of the warp 
and consequent high breakage of yarn, only one warp could 
be put in a weaver's set at a time, so the two warps, 6 and 1, 
used for comparison, were run successively on the same loom. 
Humidity conditions were fairly constant so that no appre- 
ciable variation entered the results by weaving the warps suc- 
cessively. 

Further confirmation of the results was made by running- 
another warp, 8, in another set of looms but near the first set. 
An observer took accurate note of all ends broken out either 
at the back of the loom or in the shed and classified under 
causes as "knots," "bunches," "coarse threads" and "un- 
known." The first three are shown in Fig. 1. This last class 
comprised ends broken in the shed for which the cause was 
not readily apparent. Some of the probable causes for these 
ends breaking are thin threads, slack ends, rough harness 
eyes and tight ends. 



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17 



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Warp 


Temperature 




of sizing 


6 


174° F. 


7 


212° F. 



Chart 6. Ends Broken due to Bunches, Coarse Threads 

and Unknown Causes. Warps Slashed at the 

New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. 

LOOM BREAKAGE 

Two warps, one slashed at 212° F., warp 6, the other at 
174° F., warp 7, were woven on the same loom by the same 
weaver. The results obtained over equal yardage of woven 
cloth are as follows: 

Knots Bunches Coarse Unknown Total 
Threads 
45 48 3 28 124 

122 54 10 39 225 

Table 4. Loom Breakage Warps Slashed at Different 
Temperature . 

These results are shown in detail by charts 5 and 6. Com- 
parison of the figures show at once the marked superiority 
of the warp sized at 174° F. The breakage due to knots of the 
warp sized at 174° F. is less than half that of the warp at 
212° F. The breakage due to bunches is slightly less, but as 
this fault is accidental no great stress can be laid on this 
point. The breakage due to unknown causes is nearly one- 
third less, and that due to coarse threads over two-thirds less 
than that of the warp sized at 212° F. Faults due to coarse 
threads should be made to weave better by the sizing, as 
should also those due to unknown causes. The results ob- 
tained must be considered for their face value. 

The totals show an advantage of 44.9 per cent, for the warp 
sized at the lower temperature. A comparison of the charts 
shows that this advantage was held throughout the test. 
That is, these results show no evidence of being accidental, 
but do indicate the true conditions. Hence, better weaving 
is to be expected from a warp sized at lower temperatures. 



18 



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Chart 7. Ends Broken due to Knots, Bunches, Coarse Threads 

and Unknown Causes. Warps Slashed at the 

New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. 

CHECK TEST 
In order to check the above conclusion, another warp sized 
according to the usual method of the mill on the same ma- 
chine at a controlled temperature of 209° F., was woven in 
another set of looms. The weaver selected was one of the 
best in the room and the test run over a much longer period 
of time. The results are given in table 5. Using the same 
units as for charts 5 and 6, chart 7 was laid out showing the 
details of this test. 



Warp 



Knots Bunches 



Unknown Total 



Unknown Total 



.374 


1.654 


.520 


3.000 


.048 


2.181 



Coarse 
Threads 

309 205 63 13 590 

Table 5. Loom Breakage Warp Slashed in the Usual Manner 
These results show that the effect on temperature is very- 
regular and the defective ends are inversely proportional to 
it. Table 6 was prepared to show the ends broken per linear 
yard woven. Chart 8 gives the graphical comparison of these 
values: 

Warp Temperature Knots Bunches Coarse 

Threads 

6 174° F. .600 .640 .40 

7 212° F. 1.627 .720 .133 

8 209° F. 1.141 .759 .223 
Table 6. Ends Broken per Linear Yard of Cloth Woven 

(New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation.) 

COMPARISON OF TESTS 
So evident did this proportional relation appear, that the 
results obtained at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Mills were 
calculated in the same manner for comparison, and are given 
in table 7. In this case, three different controlled tempera- 
tures give a better opportunity to develop the curve. The in- 
teresting conclusion is reached that lowering the temperature 
increases the weaving qualities of the yarns. 

19 



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Chart 8. Total Ends Broken per Yard of Cloth. Warps Slashed 

at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Company and the 

New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. 



Warp 


Temperature 


Total 


1 


171° F. 


.767 


2 


197° F. 


1.070 


3 


207° F. 


1.130 



Table 7. Ends Broken per Linear Yard of Cloth Woven 

(Naumkeag Steam Cotton Co.) 

There is a considerable higher breakage per yard in results 
obtained at the New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. This 
is due to a variety of causes. The most important of these are 
the greater speed of the loom, the higher numbers of the yarn, 
the width of the cloth, and the density of warp in the goods 
woven at that mill. Without trying to deduce any hard and 
fast rule, if we assume that the breakage of yarn is directly 
proportional to the density of the warp, the numbers of the 
yarn, the speed of the loom, and to the width of the cloth, we 
obtain a factor by use of which the instructive comparative 
figures shown in table 6 were calculated. 

2.11 



(156- 


-68) 


X 


(150 


-104) X 


(35-= 


-22) X 


(36 — 90) 


Warp 






As Determined 


As 


Calculated 




1 






.767 






1.612 




2 






1.070 






2.258 




3 






1.130 






2.384 



Table 8. Calculated Breakage per yard 

(New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation.) 

These values, along with the corresponding ones for the 
warps 6 and 7, are shown in graphic form in Chart 9. The 
curve for the fine warp is just reverse in form of that for the 
coarse warp. This is due partly to the kind of starch and the 
nature of sizing compound used. Since each sizing mixture 
represents the usual practice for mills running on these goods, 
the results are of direct importance and can be applied with- 
out change to concrete problems of sizing. These curves show 
in a striking manner the value of lower temperatures in size 
box. They also show that the finer and denser the warp the 
greater the necessity for this regulation. 

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Chart 9. Total Yards of Yarn Woven per End Broken. Warps 

Slashed at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Company and 

the New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. 

As a check on the calculated per yard basis of comparison 
the results obtained in the weaving tests were calculated on a 
basis of the actual number of yards of yarn woven in each 
warp. This is a better and more direct basis for comparison 
than that of yards of cloth woven. The results of this calcu- 
lation were similar to the previous ones, indicating clearly 
the advantage of lower temperature. 



(Xaumkeag Steam Cotton Co.) 

Temperature °F. Yards 

171 8041 

197 5764 

207 5458 



(New Bedford Cotton Mills Corp.) 
Temperature °F. Yards 
174 3505 

207 2652 

212 1928 



Table 9. Yards of Yarn Woven per End Broken 

CONCLUSIONS 
Throughout these tests, the results point steadily to the fact 
that the lower the temperature that the size is applied within 
the limits tested (171° to 212° F.), the better the results ob- 
tained in weaving. The application of this knowledge is not 
difficult. But when applying, account should be taken of the 
fact that each size-maker has his own formula. These fre- 
quently vary greatly. If the formula gives a very thick 
mixing, the temperature of the size will have to be kept up to 
prevent the squeeze rolls from slipping and consequent stop- 
ping of the cloth covers of the top roll. Such a thick mixing 
may be necessary, although it adds to the difficulty in drying 
to meet particular conditions. Such conditions obtain in 
practice and they must be recognized and reckoned with. With 
these things in mind, it is recommended that a temperature 
as near 170° F. be maintained in the size box as is possible 
and not run into these difficulties. In the case of slashing 
warps similar to 1, 2 and 3, I would advise running them at 
170° F. For the finer grosgrain warp, I would advise on ac- 
count of the difficulties above mentioned, 185° F. as the proper 
temperature. 

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BREAKING STRENGTH OF SIZED YARNS 

The increase in the strength of yarn is, of course, partly- 
determined by the sizing formula, but for any particular for- 
mula, the strength of the yarn is increased by increasing 
the temperature of application within the limits herein set 
forth. Stronger yarn does not mean increased weaving value 
but just the reverse. Pliability, not strength, is the factor 
determining good weaving. This is shown in the following 
table based on results obtained in a mill making 22's cotton 
yarn exclusively. 

Temperature Ends broken Breaking %> Gain 

in size box. per yard cloth. Strength Ozs. in Sizing 
Unsized Yarn 10.03 

Sized at 171° F. .77 12.76 27.21 

" " 197° F. 1.07 13.19 31.50 

" " 207° F. 1.13 13.46 34.19 

Roughly speaking, there was an increase of 1% in breaking 
strength for each 6° the temperature was raised. The diffi- 
culty in weaving increased 6.8 % for each 6° rise in the tem- 
perature. 

BREAKING STRENGTH OF CLOTH 
6" section, 68 ends per inch, No. 22's yarn. 

Warp yarn 
Cloth Woven before Weaving 
Sized at 171° F. 285 lbs. 326 lbs. 

" " 197° F. 280 lbs. 336 lbs. 

" " 207° F. 317 lbs. 344 lbs. 

Again, the breaking strength of the cloth after weaving 
cannot be taken as a criterion to judge the value of sizing, 
as in this case, the cloth made from the best weaving warp 
breaks at the lowest weight. On the opposite page are 
shown micro-photographic reproductions of the three cloths 
used in the above test. The one made on the warp sized at 
171° is noticeable for its evenness of interweaving and plia- 
bility of yarns. 

The photographs reproduced on the following pages show 
the penetration of the starch in sizing. It is very difficult, 
if not impossible, to decide from these photographs which 
yarn will weave best. 

The dark threads are the warp threads. They have been 
stained with iodine to show the starch still upon them. It 
will be seen that the warp is still well coated with starch. In 
these photographs, the wide variations found in the di- 
ameter of the yarns is easily noted. In the photograph of 
the cloth made from yarn sized at 197°, near the bottom, will 
be noted a "thin cud," one of the sources of breakage due to 
"unknown causes." 



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YARNS BEFORE WEAVING 



(Best Weaving Yarn) 
Sized at 171° F. 








Sized at 197° F. 



Sized at 207° F. 

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MICRO-PHOTOGRAPHS OF CLOTH WOVEN 
FROM PRECEDING WARPS 




Sized at 171° F. 




Sized at 207° F. 
24 



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SIZING MATERIALS 

Acetic Acid is a colorless or slightly brownish liquid, 
readily soluble in water. It is usually sold as 8° acid (8° 
Twaddle) which contains 28% of acid. It is useful in 
brightening 'blueings," '"'cuttings," and soaps, and acts to 
make starch paste thinner. It is the only common acid that 
can be dried on cotton without severe rotting. 

Caustic Soda is a hard white solid that rapidly takes 
water from the air, turning to a liquid if exposed too long. 
It easily dissolves in water, giving off considerable heat and 
forming a slippery solution. Its solutions quickly dissolve 
wool, shrink cotton and mercerize it. It swells starch to a 
very strong, sticky mass known as "apparatine." Fats 
boiled in Caustic Soda solutions are made into soaps. 

Soda Ash is a white powder, easily dissolved in water 
and of mild alkaline reaction. It is very useful to neutralize 
various acids and does not act on cotton except to free it of 
waxes and impurities. It can be used to make soaps from 
fats in a manner similar to that of Caustic Soda. 

Paraffin Wax is a white solid obtained in the refining of 
petroleum and does not dissolve in water. It melts at 
120° to 130° F. and can be mixed into hot starch pastes at 
temperatures above these points. From thin pastes it sepa- 
rates on cooling; the thick ones do not. Melted and run into 
rolls, it is used to make warps weave better. It should not be 
used in this way on goods that are to be dyed, as it may cause 
serious stains. The commercial product is very pure. 

Tallow is a grayish-white fat usually obtained from the 
ox or sheep. It is the standard softener used for sizing 
of yarns. It melts at 110° to 118° F., does not dissolve in 
water, but melts and forms a partial emulsion. When used 
with starch, it does not separate. The commercial product 
varies greatly in purity, always containing water, and 
frequently starch, salt, and soap. Inferior qualities are made 
from horses, home fats, and other refuse sources. 

Bone Grease is a gray to a brown, soft fat, extracted 
from the marrow of bones. It has a peculiar, disagreeable 
odor and melts at 100° to 105° F. It acts much like tallow, 
giving softer yarns when used for sizing. 

Gum Tragasol is a thick, viscous gum obtained from 
the locust bean. When dry, it is very insoluble in water so 
it is always sold in paste form. It gives a tough, elastic 
cover to the yarn, causing it to weave better than if starched. 
The commercial product is thinned or diluted for use by agi- 
tation in water and gentle heating. 

Gum Algin is a v gum made from sea- weed and comes 
on the market in the form of the alginate of soda. Its prop- 
erties are somewhat like gum tragasol. It is used to give 
adhesiveness to the size mixture. 



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COOKING OF SIZE 

The best way to make a mixing of size is as follows: 

1. Measure into your mixing tub or make-up kettle the 
quantity of water you are to use. (This is best determined 
by the number of inches in depth in tub) . 

2. Measure out your starch so as to get exactly the proper 
weight and add it to the water while constantly stirring. 

3. Turn on the steam and raise to 208° to 210° F. in 30 
minutes, stirring constantly. 

4. Continue heating the starch: 

If Corn-Pearl, for 60 minutes; 

If Corn, thin boiling for 30 minutes; 

If Potato, for 30 minutes; 

If Tapioca, for 30 minutes. 

5. Shut off steam. The size is now ready for use. If 
the size starts to thicken, add a little heat to keep from 
setting. 

If the "size" is delivered to a storage tank from the make- 
up or mixing kettle, the temperature should also be con- 
stantly maintained at 170° F. by means of an efficient 
Automatic Temperature Controller. 

The size should flow constantly to the size box of the 
slasher. In the size box, a constant temperature of from 
170° F. to 185° F. should be kept. The proper cooked size 
would be clear, limp, and show no lumps. Inattention to the 
time of cooking and the temperatures at which it is cooked 
are usually the sources of trouble in slashing. Continued 
cooking of the starch will cause it to grow thin and lose 
its best sizing qualities. This is particularly noticeable in 
the cooking of potato starch. 

Fortunately, difficulties of this nature are no longer neces- 
sary because specially designed devices manufactured by 
the C. J. Tagliabue Mfg. Co., will automatically take care 
of the cooking. For instance, the "TAG" Automatic Com- 
bination Time and Temperature Controller will regulate 
the time that is required to raise the temperature to a boil, 
also the exact time that the "size" mixture is to be boiled, 
without any attention from the slasher-tender. Likewise, in 
the size box, the temperature of the size is easily maintained 
by means of the "TAG" Self-Operating Size Box Controller. 
Slasher rooms equipped with these simple but efficient devices 
need have little fear of uneven sizing or soft warps. 






26 



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TABLES SHOWING CAPACITIES OF THE STANDARD 
SIZES OF KETTLES AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS 



32" Diam. 
32" Deep. 

1" 3.5 

2" 7.0 

3" 10.5 

4" 14.0 

5" 17.5 

6" 21.0 

7" 24.5 

8" 28.0 

9" 31.5 

10" 35.0 

20" 70.0 

30" 105.0 

32" 112.0 



33" Diam. 
42" Deep. 

gals. 1" 3.7 

2" 7.4 

3" 11.1 

4" 14.8 

5" 18.5 

6" 22.2 

7" 25.9 

8" 29.6 

9" 33.3 

10" 37.0 

20" 74.0 

30" 111.0 

40" 148.0 



gals. 



36" Diam. 
36" Deep. 

1" 4.4 

2" 8.8 

3" 13.2 

4" 17.6 

5" 22.0 

6" 26.4 

7" 30.8 

8" 35.2 

9" 39.6 

10" 44.0 

20" 88.0 

30" 132.0 

36" 158.0 



42" Diam. 
42" Deep. 

gals. 1" 6.0 

2" 12.0 

3" 18.0 

4" 24.0 

5" 30.0 

" 6" 36.0 

7" 42.0 

8" 48.0 

9" 54.0 

10" 60.0 

20" 120.0 

30" 180.0 

40" 240.0 

" 42" 252.0 



gals. 



48" Diam. 
48" Deep. 

1" 7.8 

2" 15.6 

3" 23.4 

4" 31.2 

5" 39.0 

6" 46.8 

7" 54.6 

8" 62.4 

9" 70.2 

10" 78.0 

20" 156.0 

30" 234.0 

40" 312.0 

48" 374.4 



gals. 



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27 



FORMULA 

Starch lbs. 

S - lbs. 

J 5 lbs. 

5 - lbs. 

Water inches gals. 

Method of cooking 

Yarn sized .' 



FORMULA 

Starch :. lbs. 

£ '. lbs. 

| 5 lbs. 

o Z 
£ - lbs. 

Water .-... inches gals. 

Method of cooking 



Yarn sized 






Starch 


FORMULA 


lbs. 


g lbs. 


CD 




lbs. 


o £ 




lbs. 



Water inches ; gals. 

Method of cooking 

Yarn sized 



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28 



FORMULA 

Starch lbs. 

£ lbs. 

u S 

CD C 

•g $ lbs. 

o 1 

£ lbs. 

Water inches gals. 

Method of cooking 

Yarn sized 



FORMULA 

Starch lbs. 

S lbs. 

■5 B lbs. 

o J 

«g : ibs. 

Water inches gals. 

Method of cooking _ 

Yarn sized 



FORMULA 

Starch lbs. 

3 lbs. 

h ° 

| $ lbs. 

o £ 

M lbs - 

Water inches gals. 

Method of cooking 

Yarn sized 



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To Calculate Counts of Cotton Yarn. 

Measure off 120 yards of the yarn and weigh in grains. 
Multiply the grains by 7, divide the answer into (7000) and 
then your answer will be the counts of the yarn. 
Example: 

120 yards weighs 50 grains, find the counts of yarn: 

7000 

= 20's yarn. 

50X7 

To Calculate Counts of Worsted Yarn. 

Measure off 80 yards of the yarn and find its weight in 
grains. Multiply the grains by 7, divide into (7000) and 
then your answer will be the counts of worsted yarn. 
Example : 

80 yards weigh 100 grains, find the counts of yarn: 

7000 

= 10's worsted yarn. 

100 X 7 

To Calculate Counts of Spun Silk. 

(Use the same method as you would use for Cotton.) 
Measure 120 in grains, multiply the grains by 7 and divide 

the answer into (7000). The answer will be the counts of 

spun silk. 

To Calculate Counts of (Tram or Gum) Silk. (English). 

Measure off 100 yards of the yarn in grains, multiply the 
grains by 70 and divide result into (7000). The answer will 
be the counts of the silk. 
Example : 

100 yards of (Tram or Gum) silk weighs 2 grains, what 
is the count of the yarn? 

7000 

= 50's silk yarn. 

2 X 70 

To Calculate Counts of Artificial Silk. 

Use the same method as for Cotton and Spun Silk. 

120 yards weighed into grains, the result multiplied by 7 
and this divided into (7000). The answer will give you the 
counts of artificial silk. 

BASIS OF THE COUNT SYSTEMS OF YARNS. 
Standard Length 



System 


Length 
Unit 


Weight 
Unit 


Yds. per Lb. 
of No. 1 


Cotton, English 

Cotton, French 

Linen 

Worsted 

Wool, French 


840 yds. 
1,000 metres 
300 yds. 
560 yds. 
100 metres 


lib. 

500 grms. 

lib. 

lib. 

1,000 grms. 


840 
992 . 12 
300 
560 
496 



30 



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Length of yarn in yards 
Length Unit 
= Number of yarn (or counts). 



Weight of yarn in lbs. 



Weight Unit 

For example, if 120 yards of cotton yarn weigh 1 oz. = 1/16 
lb., its number (or count) is: 



120 

8407 


1 

7 


16 

7 


2 2/7 counts 


1 
16 


1 
16 



For other determinations, for example, worsted, select from 
the table the proper units for length and weight as used in 
exactly the same formula. The great advantage of the 
above table is that counts can be determined from any weight 
or length of yarn. 

1. To find the length of Cotton Yarn on a Slasher Beam 
when the weight of the yarn, counts, and number of ends 
are known : 

Multiply the weight of yarn on the beam by the counts, 
and by 840, divide the result by the number of ends and then 
the result will be the length of the cotton yarn on the beam. 

Example: 

A beam contains 500 ends of number 22's cotton yarn 
weighing 250 pounds. Find the length of the yarn? 

250 X 22 X 840 

= 9240 yards. 



500 

2. To find the length of yarn to run onto a loom beam 
in order to make a certain number of cuts of a certain 
length of cloth to the cut: 

Multiply the number of cuts by the number of yards of 
oloth to be woven to the cut, and then by 1.00 -f- the percen- 
tage allowed for contraction in weaving (which is around 8% 
in plain cloth) and the answer is the length of the yarn you 
are required to run onto the beam in order to make the 
number of cuts of required yardage. 

Example : 

A loom beam is to be made containing 10 cuts of 40 yards 
each, allowing 8% to be used in weaving, how much yarn 
must be run on? 

1.00 + .08 = 1.08 

1.08 X 40 X 10 = 432 yards of yarn to be run on. 



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31 



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3. To find the number of loom beams you can make from 
a certain length of yarim. on a slasher beam : 

Divide the length of yarn on the slasher beam by the length 
required on the loom beam. The result will be the number of 
loom beams you can make from the slasher beam. 

Example : 

Find out how many loom beams you can make from a 
slasher beam containing yarn 9240 yards in length, the loom 
beams to be made requiring 432 yards of yarn in length: 

9240 

= 21 loom beams of required length of yarn, leav- 
432 } n g igg yards of yarn on the slasher beam. 

In this case, they would usually run 18 beams containing 
10 cuts each and 3 containing 11 cuts, and run the rest of 
the yarn which would not quite be a cut, on the last beam. 



TABLE OF MULTIPLES. 

Centimeters X 0.3937 = inches. 

Centimeters X 0.0328 = feet. 

Centimeters, cubic X 0.0338 = apothecaries' fluid ounces. 

Diameter of a circle X 3.1416 = circumference. 

Gallons X 3.785 = liters. 

Gallons X 0.833565 = imperial gallons. 

Gallons, imperial X 1.199666 = U. S. gallons. 

Gallons X 8.33505 = pounds of water. 

Gallons, imperial X 10 = pounds of water. 

Gallons, imperial X 4.54102 = liters. 

Grains X 0.0648 = grams. 

Inches X 0.0254 = meters. 

Inches X 25.4 = millimeters. 

Miles X 1-609 = kilometers. 

Ounces, Troy X 1.097 = ounces of avoirdupois. 

Ounces, Avoirdupois X 0.9115 = ounces Troy. 

Pounds, Avoirdupois X 0.4536 == kilograms. 

Pounds, Avoirdupois X 0.8228572 = pounds Troy. 

Pounds, Troy X 0.37286 = kilograms. 

Pounds, Troy X 1.21527 = pounds Avoirdupois. 

Radius of a circle X 6.283185 = circumference. 

Square of the radius X 3.1416 = area. 

Square of the circumference of a circle X 0.07958 = area 



32 






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MISCELLANEOUS MEASURES. 

Barrel of flour = 196 pounds. 

Barrel of salt —- 280 pounds. 

Bale of cotton = (in America) 400 pounds. 

Bale of cotton = (in Egypt) 90 pounds. 

Bag of Sea Island cotton = 300 pounds. 

Cable = 120 fathoms. 

Can = 35 pounds. 

Cask of lime = 240 pounds. 

Fathom = 6 feet. 

Hand = 4 inches. 

Hogshead = 63 gallons. 

Keg (nails) = 100 pounds. 

Noggin or Nog. = 5/16 of a pint. 

Pace = 3.3 feet. 

Palm = 3 inches. 

Pipe = 2 hogsheads. 

Stone = 14 pounds. 

Tun = 2 pipes. 

Cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds. 

Cubic foot of water is 7.48 gallons. 

Gallon of water weighs 8 1/3 pounds. 

Gallon of water is 231 cubic inches. 

In England, wool is sold by the sack, or boll, of 22 stones, 

which, at 14 pounds to the stone, is 308 pounds. 
A pack of wool is 17 stones and 2 pounds, which is rated as a 

pack load for a horse. It is 240 pounds. 
Sack of flour = 280 pounds. 

A tod of wool is 2 stones of 14 pounds, or 28 pounds. 
A wey of wool is 6*4 tods, or 175 pounds. 
Two weys, a sack, or 350 pounds. 
A clove of wool is half a stone, or 7 pounds. 
Mile = 5,280 feet or 1,609.3 meters. 
Millier or tonneau = 2,204.6 pounds. 
Milligram = 0.0154 grain. 
Millimeter (1/1000 meter) =0.0394 inch. 
Myriagram = 22.046 pounds. 
Myriameter (10,000 meters) = 6.2137 miles. 
Ounce (Avoirdupois) = 28.350 grains. 
Ounce (Troy or Apothecaries) = 31.104 grams. 
Ounce (fluid) = 28.3966 cubic centimeters. 
Peck = 9.08 liters. 
Pint (liquid) = 0.47318 liter. 
Pound (Avoirdupois) =453.603 grams. 
Pound (English) = 0.453 kilogram. 
Pound (Troy) = 373.25 grams. 
Quart (liquid) = 0.94636 liter. 
Quintal = 220.46 pounds. 
Scruple (Troy) = 1.296008 grams. 
Ton = 20 hundredweight = 2,240 pounds (Avoirdupois) 

1,016.070 kilograms. 
Yard = 0.9144 meter. 



33 



[T^%M#I^£^£^£M£^£M£^%^£^£^fTl 



COMPARISON OF METRIC SYSTEM WITH THE 

UNITED STATES METHOD OF WEIGHTS 

AND MEASURES. 

(Arranged in Alphabetical Order). 

Are (100 square meters) == 119.6 square yards. 

Bushel = 2150.42 cubic inches, 35.24 liters. 

Centare (1 square meter) = 1550 square inches. 

Centigram (1/100 gram) = 0.1543 grain. 

Centiliter (1/100 liter) =2.71 fluid drams, 0.338 fluid ounces. 

Centimeter (1/100 meter) = 0.3937 inch. 

1 Cubic Centimeter =16.23 minims (Apothecaries). 
10 Cubic Centimeters = 2.71 fluid drams (Apothecaries). 
30 Cubic Centimeters = 1.01 fluid ounces (Apothecaries). 

100 Cubic Centimeters = 3.38 fluid ounces (Apothecaries). 

473 Cubic Centimeters = 16.00 fluid ounces (Apothecaries). 

500 Cubic Centimeters = 16.90 fluid ounces (Apothecaries). 
1000 Cubic Centimeters = 33.81 fluid ounces (Apothecaries). 
Decigram (1/10 gram) =15432 grains. 
Decimeter (1/10 meter) = 3 937 inches. 
Deciliter (1/10 liter) =0.845 gill. 
Dekagram (10 grams) = 0.3527 ounce. 

Dekaliter (10 liters) =9.08 quarts (dry), 2.6418 gallons. 
Dekameter (10 meters) =393.7 inches. 
Dram (Apothecaries cr Troy) =39 grams. 
Foot = 0.3048 meter, or 30.48 centimeters. 
Gallon = 3.785 liters. 

Gill = 0.118295 liter, or 142 cubic centimeters. 
Grain (Trov) =0.064804 gram. 
Grain = 0.0648. 
Gram = 15.432 grains. 
Hectare (10,000 square meters) =2.471 
Hectogram = 3 5274 ounces. 

Hectoliter (100 liters) = 2.838 bushels, or 26.418 gallons. 
Hectometer (100 meters) = 328 feet 1 inch. 
Hundredweight (112 pounds Avoirdupois) = 50.8 kilograms. 
Inch = 0.0254 meter. 
Inch = 2.54 centimeters. 
Inch = 25.40 millimeters. 

Kilogram = 2 2046 pounds, or 35.274 ounces. 
Kiloliter (1,000 liters) = 1.308 cubic yards, or 264.18 gallons. 
Kilometer (1,000 meters) = 0.62137 miles (3.280 feet 10 

inches). 
Liter = 1.0567 quarts, 0.264 gallon (liquid), or 0.908 quart 

(dry). 
Meter = 39.3700 inches, or 3.28083 feet. 
Mile = 1.609 kilometers. 



34 



PRODUCTION TABLE FOR SLASHER HAVING 7 FT. AND 
5 FT. CYLINDERS-Pounds per 10 Hours 



No. 
of 


Number of Ends in Warp 


No. 
of 












Yarn 


1200 


1300 


1400 


1500 


1600 


1700 


1800 1900 


2000 


2100 


22C0 


Yarn 


8 


2214 


2318 


2409 


2489 


2555 


2610 


2659 


2703 


2743 


2778 


2808 


8 


10 


2022 


2098 


2166 


2217 


2388 


2456 


2514 


2562 


2601 


2631 


2657 


10 


12 


1796 


1896 


1987 


2071 


2147 


2216 


2277 


2330 


2375 


2412 


2442 


12 


14 


1631 


1725 


1813 


1894 


1969 


2036 


2098 


2156 


2205 


2248 


2285 


14 


16 


1502 


1592 


1676 


1756 


1830 


1898 


1962 


2018 


2071 


2118 


2159 


16 


18 


1398 


1485 


1567 


1644 


1716 


1786 


1847 


1906 


1960 


2009 


2054 


18 


20 


1312 


1395 


1475 


1550 


1653 


1688 


1752 


1811 


1866 


1917 


1964 


20 


22 


1238 


1319 


1396 


1469 


1539 


1606 


1669 


1728 


1784 


1836 


1885 


22 


24 


1174 


1252 


1327 


1399 


1467 


1533 


1595 


1655 


1711 


1764 


1814 


24 


26 


1117 


1193 


1265 


1335 


1403 


1467 


1529 


1588 


1645 


1698 


1749 


26 


28 


1066 


1139 


1210 


1279 


1344 


1408 


1469 


1528 


1584 


1638 


1690 


28 


30 


1020 


1091 


1159 


1226 


1291 


1353 


1413 


1471 


1528 


1582 


1634 


30 


32 


977 


1046 


1113 


1178 


1241 


1303 


1362 


1420 


1475 


1529 


1581 


32 


34 


937 


1004 


1069 


1133 


1195 


1242 


1314 


1370 


1425 


1479 


1536 


34 


36 




965 


1029 


1091 


1151 


1210 


1268 


1324 


1378 


1431 


1482 


36 


38 






990 


1051 


1110 


1168 


1224 


1279 


1333 


1385 


1436 


38 


40 








1012 


1070 


1127 


1182 


1236 


1289 


1341 


1392 


40 


42 










1032 


1088 


1142 


1195 


1247 


1298 


1348 


42 


44 












1050 


1103 


1155 


1207 


1257 


1306 


44 


46 














1065 


1117 


1167 


1216 


1265 


46 


48 
















1070 


1128 


1177 


1225 


48 


50 


















1090 


1138 


1181 


50 


60 




















956 


998 


60 



Number of Ends in Warp 



2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000 3100 3200 3300 Yarn 



2832 
2680 
2466 
2315 
2195 
2094 

2008 
1931 
1861 
1798 
1739 

1683 
1631 
1580 
1532 
1485 

1441 
1397 
1354 
1313 
1272 

1231 

1041 



2847 
2701 
2484 
2338 
2225 
2130 

2047 
1980 
1905 
1843 

1785 

1731 

1678 
1632 
1581 
1534 

1489 
1445 
1402 
1360 
1318 

1277 
10S3 



2860 
2717 
2498 
2362 
2250 
2161 

2082 
2006 
1946 
1886 
1830 

1776 

1725 
1675 
1628 
1576 

1536 
1491 
1448 
1406 
1364 

1314 

1124 



2731 
2507 
2382 

2270 
2187 

2113 
2049 
1984 
1926 
1871 

1819 
1769 
1720 
1673 
1627 

1582 
1537 
L494 
1451 
1409 

1367 
1166 



2517 
2395 
2285 
2209 

2140 
2076 
2019 
1964 
1911 

1860 
1811 
1757 
1717 
1671 

1626 
1582 
1538 
1495 
1453 

1410 

1207 



2405 
2293 
2226 

2164 

2106 
2051 
1998 
1948 

1899 
1851 
1805 
1759 
1714 

1669 
1625 
1582 
1539 
1496 

1454 

1247 



2297 

2238 

2183 
2130 
2079 
2030 
1983 

1936 
1890 
1845 
1800 
1755 

1711 
1668 
1625 
1582 
1539 

1496 

1288 



2245 

2198 
2151 
2105 
2052 
2015 

1970 
1926 
1883 
1839 
1796 

1752 
1709 
1662 
1628 
1580 

1537 
1328 



2209 
2168 
2127 
2086 
2045 

2003 
1961 
1919 

1877 
1834 

1792 
1750 
1707 
1664 
1622 

1579 
1368 



2182 
2147 
2110 
2072 

2032 
1994 
1954 
1913 
1872 

1830 
1789 
1748 
1705 
1662 

1620 
1408 



2163 
2131 
2097 

2058 
2045 
1992 
1948 
1908 

1868 
1827 
1786 
1744 
1702 

1659 
1447 



35 



COMPARATIVE TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE TABLE 
(Fahrenheit and Centigrade) 



F. 


C. 


F. 


C. 


F. 


C. 


F. 


C. 


32. 


0. 


64.40 


18. 


97.25 


36.25 


129.20 


54. 


33. 


0.56 


65. 


18.34 


98. 


36.67 


130. 


54.45 


33.80 


1. 


65.75 


18.75 


98.60 


37. 


131. 


55. 


34. 


1.11 


66. 


18.89 


99. 


37.23 


132. 


55.56 


34.25 


1.25 


66.20 


19. 


99.50 


37.50 


132.80 


56. 


35. 


1.67 


67. 


19.45 


100. 


37.78 


133. 


56.11 


35.60 


2. 


68. 


20. 


100.40 


38. 


133.25 


56.25 


36. 


2.23 


69. 


20.56 


101. 


38.34 


134. 


56.67 


36.50 


2.50 


69.80 


21. 


101.75 


38.75 


134.60 


57. 


37. 


2.78 


70. 


21.11 


102. 


38.89 


135. 


57.23 


37.40 


3. 


70.25 


21.25 


102.20 


39. 


135.50 


57.50 


38. 


3.34 


71. 


21.67 


103. 


39.45 


136. 


57.78 


38.75 


3.75 


71.60 


22. 


104. 


40. 


136.40 


58. 


39. 


3.89 


72. 


22.23 


105. 


40.56 


137. 


58.34 


39.20 


4. 


72.50 


22.50 


105.80 


41. 


137.75 


58.75 


40. 


4.45 


73. 


22.78 


106. 


41.11 


138. 


58.89 


41. 


5. 


73.40 


23. 


106.25 


41.25 


138.20 


59. 


42. 


5.56 


74. 


23.34 


107. 


41.67 


139. 


59.45 


42.80 


6. 


74.75 


23.75 


107.60 


42. 


140. 


60. 


43. 


6.11 


75. 


23.89 


108. 


42.23 


141. 


60.56 


43.25 


6.25 


75.20 


24. 


108.50 


42.50 


141.80 


61. 


44. 


6.67 


76. 


24.45 


109. 


42.78 


142. 


61.11 


44.60 


7. 


77. 


25. 


109.40 


43. 


142.25 


61.25 


45. 


7.23 


78. 


25.56 


110. 


43.34 


143. 


61.67 


45 . 50 


7.50 


78.80 


26. 


110.75 


43.75 


143.60 


62. 


46. 


7.78 


79. 


26.11 


111. 


43.89 


144. 


62.23 


46.40 


8. 


79.25 


26.25 


111.20 


44. 


144.50 


62.50 


47. 


8.34 


80. 


26.67 


112. 


44.45 


145. 


62.78 


47.75 


8.75 


80.60 


27. 


113. 


45. 


145 . 40 


63. 


48. 


8.89 


81. 


27.23 


114. 


45.56 


146. 


63.34 


48.20 


9. 


81.50 


27.50 


114.80 


46. 


146.75 


63.75 


49. 


9.45 


82. 


27.78 


115. 


46.11 


147. 


63.89 


50. 


10. 


82.40 


28. 


115.25 


46.25 


147.20 


64. 


51. 


10.56 


83. 


28.34 


116. 


46.67 


148. 


64.45 


51.80 


11. 


83.75 


28.75 


116.60 


47. 


149. 


65. 


52. 


11.11 


84. 


28.89 


117. 


47.23 


150. 


65.56 


52.25 


11.25 


84.20 


29.00 


117.50 


47.50 


150.80 


66. 


53. 


11.67 


85. 


29.45 


118. 


47.78 


151. 


66.11 


53.60 


12. 


86. 


30. 


118.40 


48. 


151.25 


66.25 


54. 


12.23 


87. 


30.56 


119. 


48.34 


152. 


66.67 


54.50 


12.50 


87.80 


31. 


119.75 


48.75 


152.60 


67. 


55. 


12.78 


88. 


31.11 


120. 


48.89 


153. 


67.23 


55.40 


13. 


88.25 


31.25 


120.20 


49. 


153.50 


67.50 


56. 


13.34 


89. 


31.67 


121. 


49.45 


154. 


67.78 


56.75 


13.75 


89.60 


32. 


122. 


50. 


154.40 


68. 


57. 


13.89 


90. 


32.23 


123. 


50.56 


155. 


68.34 


57.20 


14. 


90.50 


32.50 


123.80 


51. 


155.75 


68.75 


58. 


14.45 


91. 


32.78 


124. 


51.11 


156. 


68.89 


59. 


15. 


91.40 


33. 


124.25 


51.25 


156.20 


69. 


60. 


15.56 


92. 


33.34 


125. 


51.67 


157. 


69.45 


60.80 


16. 


92.75 


33.75 


125.60 


52. 


158. 


70. 


61. 


16.11 


93. 


33.89 


126. 


52.23 


159. 


70.56 


61.25 


16.25 


93 . 20 


34. 


126.50 


52 . 50 


159.80 


71. 


62. 


16.67 


94. 


34.45 


127. 


52.78 


160. 


71.11 


62.60 


17. 


95. 


35. 


127 . 40 


53. 


160.25 


71.25 


63. 


17.23 


96. 


35.56 


128. 


53.34 


161. 


71.67 


63.50 


17.50 


96.80 


36. 


128.75 


53.75 


161.60 


72. 


64. 


17.78 


97. 


36.11 


129. 


53.89 


162. 


72.23 



36 







Gauge 






Gauge 


Fahren- 


Centi- 


Pressure 


Fahren- 


Centi- 


Pressure 


heit 


grade 


lbs. 


heit 


grade 


lbs. 


162.50 


72.50 




197. 


91.67 




163. 


72.78 




197.60 


92. 




163.40 


73. 




198. 


92.23 




164. 


73.34 




198.50 


92.50 




164.75 


73.75 




199. 


92.78 




165. 


73.89 




199.40 


93.00 




165.20 


74. 




200. 


93.34 




166. 


.74.45 




200.75 


93.75 




167. 


75. 




201. 


93.89 




168. 


75.56 




201.20 


94. 




168.80 


76. 




202. 


94.45 




169. 


76.11 




203. 


95. 




169.25 


76.27 




204. 


95.56 




170. 


76.67 




204.80 


96. 




170.60 


77. 




205. 


96.11 




171. 


77.23 




205 . 25 


96.25 




171.50 


77.50 




206. 


96.67 




172. 


77 . 78 




206.60 


97. 




172.40 


78. 




207. 


97.23 




173. 


78.34 




207 . 50 


97.50 




173.75 


78.75 




208. 


97.78 




174. 


78.89 




208 . 40 


98. 




174.20 


79. 




209. 


98.34 




175. 


79.45 




209.75 


98.75 




176. 


80. 




210. 


98.89 




177. 


80.56 




210.20 


99. 




177.80 


81. 




211. 


99.45 




178. 


81.11 




212. 


100. 





178.25 


81.25 




213. 


100.56 




179. 


81.67 




213.80 


101. 




179 . 60 


82. 




214. 


101.11 




180. 


82.23 




214.25 


101.25 




180.50 


82.50 




215. 


101.67 


1 


181. 


82.78 




215.60 


102. 




181.40 


83. 




216. 


102.23 




182. 


83.34 




216.50 


102.50 




182.75 


83.75 




217. 


102.78 




183. 


83.89 




217.40 


103. 




183.20 


84. 




218. 


103 . 34 




184. 


84.45 




218.75 


103.75 




185. 


85. 




219. . 


103.89 


2 


186. 


85.56 




219.20 


104. 




186.80 


86. 




220. 


104.45 




187. 


86.11 




221. 


105. 




187.25 


86.25 




222. 


105 . 56 


3 


188. 


86.67 




222.80 


106. 




188.60 


87. 




223. 


106.11 




189. 


87.23 




223.25 


106.25 




189.50 


87.50 




224. 


106.67 


4 


190. 


87.78 




224.60 


107. 




190.40 


88. 




225. 


107 . 23 




191. 


88.34 




225 . 50 


107.50 




191.75 


88.75 




226. 


107.78 




192. 


88 . 89 




226.40 


108. 




192.20 


89. 




227. 


108.34 


5 


193. 


89.45 




227 . 75 


108.75 




194. 


90. 




228. 


108 . 89 




* 195. 


90.56 




228 . 20 


109. 




195.80 


91. 




229. 


109.45 




196. 


91.11 




230. 


110. 


6 


196.25 


91.25 




231. 


110.56 





37 







Gauge 






Gauge 


Fahren- 


Centi- 


Pressure 


Fahren- 


Centi- 


Pressure 


heit 


grade 


lbs. 


heit 


grade 


lbs. 


231.80 


111. 




266. 


130. 




232. 


111.11 


7 


267. 


130.56 


25 


232.25 


111.25 




267.80 


131. 




233. 


111.67 




268. 


131.11 


26 


233.60 


112. 




268 . 25 


131.25 




234. 


112.23 




269. 


131.67 




234.50 


112.50 




269.60 


132. 




235. 


112.78 


8 


270. 


132.23 


27 


235.40 


113. 




270.50 


132.50 




236. 


113.34 




271. 


132.78 


28 


236.75 


113.75 




271.40 


133. 




237. 


113.89 


9 


272. 


133.34 




237 . 20 


114. 




272.75 


133.75 




238. 


114.45 




273. 


133.89 


29 


239. 


115. 


10 


273.20 


134. 




240. 


115.56 




274. 


134.45 


30 


240.80 


116. 




275. 


135. 


31 

< 


241. 


116.11 




276. 


135.56 


241 . 25 


116.25 




276.80 


136. 




242. 


116.67 


11 


277. 


136.11 


32 


242.60 


117. 




277.25 


136.25 




243. 


117.23 




278. 


136.67 


33 


243 . 50 


117.50 




278 . 60 


137. 




244. 


117.78 


12 


279. 


137.23 


34 


244 . 40 


118. 




279 . 50 


137.50 


1 


245. 


118.34 




'280. 


137.78 


1 


245.75 


118.75 




280.40 


138. 


! 


246. 


118.89 


13 


281. 


138.34 


35 \ 


246.20 


119. 




281.75 


138.75 




247. 


119.45 




282. 


138. S9 


36 


248. 


120. 


14 


282.20 


139. 


1 


249. 


120.56 




283. 


139.45 


37 

38 


249.80 


121. 




284. 


140. 


250. 


121.11 


15 


285. 


140.56 




250.25 


121.25 




285.80 


141. 


,: 


251. 


121.67 




286. 


141.11 


39 


251.60 


122. 




286 . 25 


141.25 




252. 


122.23 


16 


287. 


141.67 


40 


252 . 50 


122.50 




287 . 60 


142. 




253. 


122 . 78 




288. 


142.23 


41 


253.40 


123. 




288 . 50 


142.50 


! 


254. 


123.34 


17 


289. 


142.78 


42 


254.75 


123.75 




289 . 40 


143. 


255. 


123.89 


18 


290. 


143.34 


43 


255.20 


124. 




290.75 


143.75 


l 


256. 


124.45 




291. 


143.89 


44 


257. 


125. 


19 


291.20 


144. 


i 


258. 


125.56 




292. 


144.45 


45 


258.80 


126. 




293. 


145. 


i 


259. 


126.11 


20 


294. 


145.56 


46 


259 . 25 


126.25 




294.80 


146. 




260. 


126.67 




295. 


146.11 


47 | 


260.60 


127. 




295 . 25 


146 . 25 




261. 


127.23 


21 


296. 


146.67 


48 


261.50 


127.50 




296.60 


147. 




262. 


127.78 


22 


297. 


146.23 


49 


262.40 


128. 




297.50 


147.50 




263. 


128 . 34 




298. 


147.78 


50 


263 . 75 


128 . 75 




298 . 40 


148. 


1 


264. 


128.89 


23 


299. 


148.34 


51 


264.20 


129. 




299.75 


148.75 


I 


265 . 


129.45 


24 


300. 


148.89 


52 ; 



38 



t] igftG] ?S ?S $3Ml ?S ?S ?S 2S ^S sS ^S E 



HOW TO USE A HYDROMETER 

The hydrometer must be absolutely clean, to begin with, 
and should therefore be wiped thoroughly with a clean, soft 
rag before using. The jar or other receptacle should also 
be deep enough to allow the hydrometer to float freely— 
without touching the bottom. 

Insert the hydrometer by grasping same at the extreme 
end and above the scale portion (so that the indications will 
not be affected by moisture or grease on the stem from the 
hand) and be careful to let it sink of its own weight only. 
After the hydrometer has come to rest, carefully push it into 
the liquid to the extent of 1/16 inch further and allow it to 
again come to rest; this procedure being for the purpose of 
facilitating the forming of the proper meniscus around the 
stem of the hydrometer by the solution. 

Then note the point on the scale which corresponds exactly 
with the level of the surface of the solution and do not use 
the top of the meniscus as the proper point. 

In the case of a transparent solution, it is easy to get the 
exact point by the following method: First observe the 
liquid within the jar or other receptacle from below the level 
of the solution so that the "mirror," caused by the light 
reflection of the top surface, is distinctly visible; then raise 
the eye slowly and observe how this mirror gradually dis- 
appears as the eye travels upward; just when the mirror is 
finally lost will then leave the eye exactly in the plane with 
the top of the surface and in position to take the exact 
reading. 

When the solution is opaque, however, the extent of the 
meniscus must be carefully measured with the eye and sub- 
tracted from the reading given by the top of the meniscus, so 
that the true reading given by the level of the main body 
}f the solution is obtained. 

When the hydrometer is of combination form, the tempera- 
ture indicated by the thermometer portion is next noted so 
that the necessary correction can be applied if the solution 
/aries in temperature from that at which the hydrometer was 
standardized. 

The correction, however, being so small, is entirely negli- 
gible and can be disregarded. A hydrometer for testing 
size would be standardized at 150° F. 

Therefore the temperature reading of the solution is not 
aken until the thermometer has had ample time to register 
j approximately 150° F. 

In the case of a plain hydrometer (without thermometer 
■ombined with the instrument) the temperature of the solu- 
ion must be ascertained with a separate thermometer. Of 
.ourse, the hydrometer reading should not be taken until the 
hermometer registers 150° F. 



S 2@G] ?@G] %B ?S ?S %S ?@G] ?S 2S 2& SgttG] [Tj 

39 



p'rn ^^i^Gl s^i^gI ^iei^Gl ^^i^Gl ^j^ag] ^^fAGl ^^j^G] ^^TagI ^j^t^gI ^^fAGl ^^i^AjgI prl 



DENSITY TABLE 



Specific 


Degrees 


Degrees 


Lbs. per 


Lbs. per 


Gravity 


Baume 


Twaddell 


Gallon 


Cu. Ft. 


1.00 








8.35 


62.43 


1.01 


1.4 


2 


8.43 


63.02 


1.02 


2.7 


4 


8.51 


63.68 


1.03 


4.1 


6 


8.60 


64.27 


1.04 


5.4 


8 


8.68 


64.92 


1.05 


6.7 


10 


8.77 


65.52 


1.06 


8.0 


12 


8.85 


66.17 


1.07 


9.4 


14 


S.93 


66.77 


1.08 


10.6 


16 


9.01 


67.42 


1.09 


11.9 


18 


9.10 


68.02 


1.10 


13.0 


20 


9.18 


68.67 


1.11 


14.2 


22 


9.27 


69.26 


1.12 


15.4 


24 


9.35 


69.92 


1.13 


16.5 


26 


9.44 


70.51 


1.14 


17.7 


2S 


9.51 


71.17 


1.15 


18.8 


30 


9.60 


71.76 


1.16 


19.8 


32 


9.68 


72.41 


1.17 


20.9 


34 


9.77 


73.01 


1.18 


. 22.0 


36 


9.85 


73.66 


1.19 


23.0 


38 . 


9.94 


74.26 


1.20 


24.0 


40 


10.01 


74.91 


1.21 


25.0 


42 


10.10 


75.50 


1.22 


26.0 


44 


10.18 


76.16 


1.23 


26.9 


46 


10.27 


76.75 


1.24 


27.9 


48 


10.35 


77.41 



WHA T IS TEMPERA T URE 1 
WHAT IS HEAT? 

Temperature. 

If we touch a body and it feels hot, we are accustomed to 
say that it has a high temperature, likewise, if the body 
feels cold, we are accustomed to say that its temperature is 
low. Thus, the sensations experienced upon touching a sub- 
stance, gives a general idea of the state of temperature of 
the substance, and the terms hot, warm, temperate, chilly, 
and cold are used to indicate the amount of temperature. 

These terms, however, give only a general idea of the 
temperature. If the hand is held in cold water for a while 
and is then placed quickly in warm water, the warm water 
will feel much warmer than it actually is. If a small quan- 
tity of gasoline which has been in a room until it has 
attained room temperature, is poured on the hand, it seems 
much cooler than it actually is. 

It can readily be seen from these facts that the sensations 
of hot and cold cannot be depended upon in judging tempera- 
ture, and it is therefore necessary to adopt some other means 
of measuring this quantity where it is desired to obtain more 
accurate results. 



Prl^IAGl ^IAGl ^IAGl ^JAG] ^T4Gl ^JAG] ^1^^ ^JA^ ^C\G] ^JAG] ^T^3| [T] 

40 



Il@l@l@l@l@lgl@l@l@lg®i 



It should be noted that the temperature does not indicate 
the amount of heat which a substance contains but only 
shows the condition of the heat in the substance. If one 
vessel contains a pint of water at a certain temperature and 
another contains a quart of water at the same temperature, 
the quart of water has absorbed more heat than the pint has 
and, consequently it contains more heat although its tempera- 
ture is the same as the pint of water. 

Thermometers. 

A thermometer is an instrument for measuring tempera- 
ture. Therometers indicate the intensity of the temperature 
by the expansion of mercury or colored spirit. The ordinary 
mercury thermometer is so familiar that it scarcely needs a 
description. 

In the Fahrenheit thermometer, which is generally used 
in the United States, the point at which the mercury stands 
in the tube when the instrument is placed in melting ice, 
is marked thirty-two degrees. The point indicated by the mer- 
cury when the thermometer is placed in the steam arising 
from boiling water, under atmospheric pressure and at sea 
level, is marked 212° F. The tube between these two points 
is divided into 180 equal parts called degrees. 

On the Centigrade thermometer, the distance between 
these two points is divided into 100 equal parts called degrees, 
the freezing point being zero and the boiling point 100°. The 
following rules have been obtained for converting one into 
the other: 

Rule No. 1. — To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees 
Centigrade, subtract 32, multiply the remainder by 5 and 
divide by 9. 

Rule No. 2. — To convert degrees Centigrade to degrees 
Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide by 5 and add 32. 

Heat. 

Modern science teaches that heat is a form of energy 
and that all matter is composed of- molecules which are more 
or less in a state of rapid vibration. The rapidity or inten- 
sity of these vibrations produces the sensations of warmth or 
cold. From this it will be seen that cold is a relative expres- 
sion and signifies a greater or less absence of heat or motion 
of the molecules of a body. If the motion of the molecules is 
rapid, the body is warm; if their motion is slow, the body is 
less warm or cold. 

Measurement of Heat. 

Since heat is not a substance and has no weight, it cannot 
be determined by a measure of volume or by weight, but can 
only be measured by the effect it produces on other substances. 
The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one 
pound of water one degree, at or near its temperature at 
maximum density, (39 1/10° F.), has been selected as the 
standard unit of measure and is called the British Thermal 
Unit, commonly abbreviated B. T. U. 



pTl ^IAGl ^IAGl ^IAGl ^fAGl^IAGl ^fAGl ^IAGl ^JAGl ^JAG] ^JAG] ^JAG] pTl 

41 



\^W^^0^W^^^^^^M\^^W^W^^^W^\T\ 




A SIMPLE SIZED YARN TEST ! 

Take a warp thread after it has left the drying cylinder 
and hold it between your thumb and first finger as shown 
in the above illustration. Have four inches of the yarn above 
the fingers and if the thread has sufficient strength to main- 
tain an upright position, you will know that the yarn has 
been properly sized. 

However, if your sized yarn will not stand this simple 
test, it is very likely that the trouble is due to fluctuating 
temperatures within the size mixing or cooking kettles 
and in the size boxes. "TAG" Size Box Automatic Temper- 
ature Controllers offer a simple and self-paying solution. 



! pT| ^IAGl ^EAGl ^^AGl ^gJAGl^JAGl ^JAG| ^JAG] ^T^3l ^IAGl ^gJAGl ^JAG| [T^ 

42 



(t] ?s ^S ^S ^S %S\ ^s ?S ^S ^S 8@H ^s e 




NOTE THE DIFFERENCE IN 
AND "COVER" 



FEEL" 



This illustration is a photographic reproduction of two 
pieces of cloth (woven at the same mill) before they were 
boiled out, scoured or bleached. The "size" mixture, yarn, 
etc., were identical except that each piece of cloth was sized 
at the temperature indicated. 

Note the difference in texture — how much softer and more 
uniform in appearance the texture is where the warp had 
been sized at a lower temperature and uniformly maintained 
at 185° F. by having the size boxes equipped with "TAG" 
Size Box Automatic Temperature Controllers. 



pTl ^JAG] ^IAGl ^JAGl ^TAGl ^JAGl ^TAGl ^T4G| ^gJAGl ^l^Gl ^gJAGl ^JAGl PTH 

43 



VI 



?/ 



Pja. » A 62820 „ . 



ri\ 



ov\ 



Fig. 1. 



V^T, 



•UJaiAtca 









These two charts are records of the temperature of the 
size maintained in a size box under identical operating con- 
ditions, the temperature desired being 200° F. Fig. 1, shows 
the irregularity and fluctuations produced by the most careful 
HAND CONTROL and Fig. 2, the uniformity produced by a 
"TAG" AUTOMATIC TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER. 
(These results were obtained at the mills of the York Mfg. Co.) 



OPAVag., 




Fig. 2. 



W, 



'•UluiK cgt 



\T\^^W^^^^^W^^^W^^^^^W^^^\^ 




"TAG" Self-Operating 

SIZE BOX 
Temperature Controllers 

are so simple to operate and SO 

positive in action that even an un- 
skilled attendant can obtain uniform 
results with practically no labor or 
attention. 

"Set it and forget it" describes the 
situation because all the attendant 
need do is to "set" the controller 
for the required temperature and 
virtually "forget it." There is no 
time and labor wasted "juggling" 
the hand valves— no fluctuating tem- 
peratures — no splashing or chilling 
of the size— no imperfectedly sized 
or variable warps. 

The "TAG" Controller requires no 
compressed air or other auxiliary 
motive power and can be adjusted to 
accurately regulate any temperature 
requirement between 160° and 235° F. 




'Set it and forget it" 



IT] lgftG| 3@S] 3@G] 2@G] ?@G] 2@G] l@fi| ggHG] 2@G] ?@G] t@g] [T] 

45 



r^%M%^£^£^£^£M%^%^#i^£^%^rri 




Illustration showing- the "TAG" Self-Operating Temperature 
Controller Applied to, a Size Box. 



— the only size box controller which offers this wide and desir- 
able range. 

A special "TAG" size box fitting is supplied with each 
controller for the convenient reception and removal of the 
thermostatic bulb at the most effective location — an essential 
factor in automatic temperature control. 

The flange of the "TAG" fitting on the inside of the 
box provides a tight closure between the copper sheathing 
and cast iron box — thus preventing the escape of "size" be- 
tween the copper lining and iron body, which condition would 
sour the size and also disintegrate the iron. 

All parts of the "TAG" Self-Operating Size Box Tem- 
perature Controller are strong and practically unbreakable 
— and the mechanism is so sensitive and responsive that 
there is never more than a 2-degree variation in the tempera- 
ture of the size. 



PTH ^IA^ ^TA^ ^IA^ ^T^ ^TA^I ^IAGl ^IAG| ^JAGl ^IAGl g^IAGl ^IAGl PF] 

46 



"TAG" COMBINATION AUTOMATIC 

TIME AND TEMPERATURE 

CONTROLLER 

For Size Mixing or Cooking Kettles 




Both in the boiling of potato starch and corn starch, it 

is absolutely essential to have the "size" mixture attain a 
uniform consistency but — this condition can only be produced 
by gradually raising the temperature in the mixing tubs 
or cooking kettles in a definite period of time and then hold- 
ing it at the boiling point for a certain interval. 

If the temperature is raised too fast, some of the starch 
granules become encased in the paste already formed and 
lumps result. On the other hand, if the temperature is 
brought up too slowly, the size becomes diluted and conse- 
quently is of a weak consistency, known as a "run-down" or 
"thin." 

Insufficient heat fails to develop the characteristics of 
l the particular starch and convert it into a uniform paste — 
• while excessive heat gradually changes the starch into invert 

sugar, which has practically no value as a protecting or 

stiffening agent for the yarn. 



47 



fTl£^3^SM%^%^%^#i^£^£^#i^S^[T^ 




"TAG" Combination Automatic Time and Temperature 
Controller Applied to a Mixing Kettle. 

The exact degree of temperature and time intervals must 
be determined by experimental work on the particular 
formula used but after these important factors have been 
ascertained, the "TAG" Combination Automatic Time and 
Temperature Controller will follow these cycles automatically. 

A fixed or adjustable cam, furnished with each controller, 
which is made to conform with the individual requirements 
of each mill, relieves the slasher-tender and over-seer of all 
work and worry because all the attendant need do is to 
open the hand steam valve wide and the "TAG" Combination 
Controller will do the rest. 

There are two distinct processes under which all applica- 
tions are made in applying these controllers to size mixing 
tubs or cooking kettles: 1 — Combination time and tempera- 
ture control of Potato Starch; 2 — Combination time and 
temperature control of Corn Starch. Consequently, a differ- 
ent cam, operating as follows, is required for each starch: 

1. Potato Starch. — A cam which will raise the tempera- 
ture to a boil in 30 minutes, a hold at that point for 30 
minutes, then drop to 170° F., and an indefinite hold at that 
temperature until another cooking is started. 

2. Corn Starch. — A cam which will raise the temperature 
to a boil or 212° F. in 30 minutes, a hold at that point for 
60 minutes, a drop to 170° F. and held at that temperature 
indefinitely. 

In specifying the design of the cam for a Combination 
Automatic Time and Temperature Controller, it would call 
for a minimum temperature of 70° F. and a maximum of 210° 
or 211° F. The adjustable cam can be arranged for a 2-hour 
rise and a maximum hold of two hours. 



48 



prl ^^fAol ^^i^ol ^j^fAo] ^^i^Gl ^^fAo] ^j^iA^I ^^iAGl ^^n\Gl ^^iagI ^^i^i&I ^^taoI PtH 



'TAG" INDICATING THERMOMETERS 

for Cooking Kettles, Size Boxes, 
Dye Kettles, etc. 



These thermometers have 
been especially designed to 

meet the exacting require- 
ments of textile processes and 
represent the ultimate perfec- 
tion of 150 years of ther- 
mometer development and 
progress. 

Permanent accuracy is guar- 
anteed because each tube is 
"seasoned" to prevent future 
false readings due to shrink- 
age of the glass. 




REGULAR FORM, RIGHT 
ANGLE STEM, Fixed 
Thread Connection. 



Actual temperature con- 
ditions are reproduced similar 
to those which the instrument 
will encounter in later use due 
to the "TAG" method of 
"pointing" and making a 
special scale for each ther- 
mometer. 

"TAG" Indicating or Indus- 
trial Thermometers can be sup- 
plied in every desired scale 
range and with every con- 
venient form of connection, 
socket, etc. 




LEFT SIDE FORM 
SEPARABLE Connection 
With Regular Socket at- 
tached. 



[Tl ^T4Gl ^gTAGl ^TAGl ^JAG| ^TAGl ^E\G| ^JAGl ^C\Gl ^gJAG| ^JAG] ^^AGl [Tl 

49 



FTl^IAGl ^JAG| ^IAGl ^JAGl ^JAG| ^S^G| ^JAGl ^JAG| ^IAGl ^glAGl ^TAG| pTTl 






"TAG" RECORDING THERMOMETERS 

for Cooking Kettles, Size Boxes, 
Dryers, etc. 




These recorders are extremely accurate and reliable be- 
cause they have been designed along sound and correct 
principles, also due to their simplicity of construction. In 
fact, the accuracy, material and workmanship of "TAG" 
Recording Thermometers are guaranteed 

Uniformity of results is assured because these instruments 
faithfully record every temperature operation, day or night, 
thereby promoting efficiency and helpful competition among 
the workmen in their efforts to produce praise-worthy charts. 

Ease of reading is another valuable feature. It often 
happens that the temperature must be taken at a point which 
is difficult of access. In such case, the dial of the "TAG" 
Recorder can be mounted at a convenient location for easy 
observation. 

"TAG" Recording Thermometers are made in both full- 
nickled bronze and japanned iron cases with nickel ring, 
in 8, 10 and 12-inch sizes and with 12-hour, 24-hour or 7-day 
charts. 



50 



prl ^^^g! ^^iagI ^^I^gI ^^i^Gl ^^i^Gl ^^I^ol ^^i^Gl ^^jagH ^jei^Gl ^^IajgI ^j^i^gI [^rl 



TEXTILE TEMPERATURE ENGINEERS 

These three 'words aptly describe a large and constantly 
increasing portion of our extensive business, the success and 
growth of which are the cumulative result of our pioneer 
experience and careful study of the various temperature prob- 
lems encountered in the textile field. 

The design and construction of our temperature indicating, 
recording and controlling instruments for slashing, dyeing, 
bleaching, etc., are therefore correct in every detail — and the 
fact that more than 150 mills have already installed "TAG" 
Size Box Automatic Temperature Controllers, is proof posi- 
tive that textile executives have confidence in our recom- 
mendations and products. 

Competent advice and valuable co-operation can there- 
fore be had from our special corps of Textile Temperature 
Engineers concerning any problem which involves heat, or 
with reference to any of our products, which include : 

THERMOMETERS, indicating, registering and re- 
cording, of numberless types and forms, for any 
and every application ; 

AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS for temperature, 
pressure, time, vacuum, condensation, liquid 
levels, etc. ; 

PYROMETERS, expansion-stem type; 

VACUUM GAGES, mercurial indicating; 

OIL TESTING INSTRUMENTS for determining 
temperature, viscosity, specific gravity, flash, fire, 
freezing and melting points of oil and grease; 

HYDROMETERS, plain and combined with ther- 
mometer; 

HYGROMETERS for indicating, registering and 
recording humidity ; 

BAROMETERS, mercurial indicating. 



jTA filABUE 

'1/wmfg.co: 

TEMPERATURE ENGINEERS 
18-88 Thirty-Third St. Brooldyn.N.Y. 



TEMPERATURE ENGINEERING PIONEERS 

Boston Chicago Pittsburgh Tulsa, Okla. 

Portland, Ore. San Francisco 

Similar Hand Books on wool scouring, dyeing, 
bleaching, etc., will be issued periodically from 
"Temperature Headquarters". 



[T] 3@ag] ?@g] ?S ^S ®U ^S %S 2& ^S &S ^S E 

51 



E ?S ?S ?S ^S $S %S\ ^S ?S ?S %M ^M IS 



MEMORANDA 



52 



[f] s@g] ^M %S ?S €M1 €M1 ?® ?S €M1 2® 2& E2 



MEMORANDA 



Prl^giAGl ^JAG] ^IAGl^iAGl ^JAG] ^JAG] ^TAGl ^IAGI ^JAGl ^gr^3l ^gf^3] [T] 

53 



MEMORANDA 



54 



[T]?@G]?@GJ ^3M£^%^£W%^£^#I^^^Ft1 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Adjustment of Machine 7 

Automatic Size-Box Temperature Controller 45 

Automatic Temperature Device for Cooking Kettle. ... 47 

Basis of Count Systems of Yarn (Standard Length) . . 30 

Boiling for Potato Starch 47-48 

Boiling of Corn Starch 47-48 

Breaking Strength of Sized Yarn 22 

Breaking Strength of Cloth 22 

Capacities of the Standard Sizes of Kettles at Dif- 
ferent Depths 27 

Check Tests 13-19 

Combination Automatic Time and Temperature Con- 
troller 47 

Comparative Temperature and Pressure Tables .... 36-37-38 

Comparison of Tests 19 

Comparison of Metric System with the U. S. Method of 

Weights and Measures 34 

Comparison of Cloths Woven with Yarn Sized at Dif- 
ferent Temperatures 43 

Conclusions 16-21 

Cooking of Size 26 

Cooking Kettle Temperature Device 47 

Cotton Yarn (How to Calculate Counts) 30 

Density Tables 40 

Details of Test 9 

Details of Weaving Test 17 

Discussion of Results 12 

Evaluation of Results - 10 

Formula Blanks 28-29 

Free Advice and Co-operation 51 

Hand vs. Automatic Temperature Control 44 

Heat 41 

How to Use a Hydrometer 39 

How to Obtain Perfectly-Sized and Uniform Warps. . .45-46 
How to Prevent Souring of the Size 46 

Ideal Mixing or Cooking Kettle Arrangement 48 

Ideal Size-Box Arrangement 46 

Importance of Slashing 3 



55 



Pi^£^%^£^£M£^£^£^l£^£^£^£^rr 



CONTENTS— ( Continued ) 

PAG 

Indicating Thermometers ' 

Influence of Temperature (Coarse Yarn) 

Influence of Temperature (Medium Yarn) 1 

Loom Breakage 1 

Materials Used 

Measurement of Heat 4 

Method of Cooking 

Micro-Photographs of Yarns Before Weaving 

Micro- Photographs of Woven Cloth 

Miscellaneous Measures 

Object of Sizing 

Production Table for Slasher Having 7 ft. and 5 ft. 

Cylinders c. 

Process of Slashing 

Recording Thermometers J 

Silk, Artificial (How to Calculate, Counts) 3( 

Silk, English (How to Calculate Counts) 

Silk, Spun (How to Calculate Counts) 

Size Box Temperature Device 

Size Mixing Temperature Device 

Sized Yarn Test 

Sizing Materials 

Slasher Details 

Special Size-Box Fitting 

Table of Multiples 32 

Tagliabue Products 51 

Temperature Device for Cooking Kettle 47 

Temperature Device for Size-Box 45 

Temperature of Size 9 

Textile Temperature Engineering 51 

Thermometers 41 

Thermometers, Indicating and Recording 49-50 

Time and Temperature Device 47 

Weaving Test 

Weaving Test Details 

What Is Heat? 

What Is Temperature? 

Worsted Yarn (How to Calculate Counts) 



237 90 

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